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This article is about the general term  "Science", particularly as it refers to experimental sciences.  For the  specific topics of study by scientists, see natural science.

For other uses, see Science (disambiguation).

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Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is an enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.[1][2][3][4] An older meaning still in use today is that of Aristotle, for whom scientific knowledge was a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and rationallysee "History and etymology" section below).[5] explained (

Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy, the way of life dedicated to discovering such knowledge. And into early modern times the two words, "science" and "philosophy", were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, "natural philosophy" (which is today called "natural science") could be considered separately from "philosophy" in general.[6]  But "science" continued to also be used in a broad sense denoting  reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in  modern terms such as library science or political science. .

The narrower sense of "science" that is common today developed as a part of science became a distinct enterprise of defining "laws of nature", based on early examples such as Kepler's laws, Galileo's laws, and Newton's laws of motion.  In this period it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as  "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word  "science" became increasingly associated with the disciplined study of  the natural world including physics, chemistry, geology and biology.  This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a  linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of  academic study as social science.  Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge  exist today under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science.[7]

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1 Basic classifications
2 History and etymology
3 Scientific method
4 Mathematics
5 Scientific community
- 5.1 Fields
- 5.2 Institutions
- 5.3 Literature
6 Philosophy of science
7 Science policy
8 Pseudoscience, fringe science, and junk science
9 Critiques
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

Basic classifications

Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2] There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering and medicine.  Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can  include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their  own terminology and expertise.[8]

Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science,[9][10]  has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the  natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in  that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area  of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its  knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods.[2] Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic,  is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science  have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal  sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws,[2] both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).

History and etymology

Main articles: History of science and Scientific revolution

Personification of "Science" in front of the Boston Public Library

It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world.[11][12]

While descriptions of disciplined empirical investigations of the natural world exist from times at least as early as classical antiquity (for example, by Aristotle and Pliny the Elder), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Alhazen and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period during what is known as the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries.[11]  This period was marked by a new way of studying the natural world, by  methodical experimentation aimed at defining "laws of nature" while  avoiding concerns with metaphysical concerns such as Aristotle's theory of causation.[13]

This modern science developed from an older and broader enterprise. The word "science" is from Old French, and in turn from Latin scientia which was one of several words for "knowledge" in that language.[14][15] In philosophical contexts, scientia and "science" were used to translate the Greek word epistemē, which had acquired a specific definition in Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle,  as a type of reliable knowledge which is built up logically from strong  premises, and can be communicated and taught. In contrast to modern  science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical"  steps of deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.[16]

From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia continued to be used in this broad sense, which was still common until the 20th century.[17] "Science" therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other Latin influenced languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carried this meaning.

Prior to the 18th century, the preferred term for the study of nature among English speakers was "natural philosophy", while other philosophical disciplines (e.g., logic, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and aesthetics) were typically referred to as "moral philosophy". (Today, "moral philosophy" is more-or-less synonymous with "ethics".) Science only became more strongly associated with natural philosophy than other sciences gradually with the strong promotion of the importance of experimental scientific method, by people such as Francis Bacon.  With Bacon, begins a more widespread and open criticism of Aristotle's  influence which had emphasized theorizing and did not treat raw data  collection as part of science itself. An opposed position became common:  that what is critical to science at its best is methodical collecting  of clear and useful raw data, something which is easier to do in some  fields than others.

The word "science" in English was still however used in the 17th century to refer to the Aristotelian  concept of knowledge which was secure enough to be used as a  prescription for exactly how to accomplish a specific task. With respect  to the transitional usage of the term "natural philosophy" in this  period, the philosopher John Locke wrote disparagingly in 1690 that "natural philosophy is not capable of being made a science".[18]

Locke's assertion notwithstanding, by the early 19th century natural  philosophy had begun to separate from philosophy, though it often  retained a very broad meaning. In many cases, science continued  to stand for reliable knowledge about any topic, in the same way it is  still used today in the broad sense (see the introduction to this  article) in modern terms such as library science, political science, and computer science. In the more narrow sense of science, as natural philosophy became linked to an expanding set of well-defined laws (beginning with Galileo's laws, Kepler's laws, and Newton's  laws for motion), it became more popular to refer to natural philosophy  as natural science. Over the course of the 19th century, moreover,  there was an increased tendency to associate science with study of the  natural world (that is, the non-human world). This move sometimes left  the study of human thought and society (what would come to be called social science) in a linguistic limbo by the end of the century and into the next.[19]

Through the 19th century, many English speakers were increasingly  differentiating science (i.e., the natural sciences) from all other  forms of knowledge in a variety of ways. The now-familiar expression “scientific method,” which refers to the prescriptive  part of how to make discoveries in natural philosophy, was almost  unused until then, but became widespread after the 1870s, though there  was rarely total agreement about just what it entailed.[19]  The word "scientist," meant to refer to a systematically working  natural philosopher, (as opposed to an intuitive or empirically minded  one) was coined in 1833 by William Whewell.[20] Discussion of scientists  as a special group of people who did science, even if their attributes  were up for debate, grew in the last half of the 19th century.[19]  Whatever people actually meant by these terms at first, they ultimately  depicted science, in the narrow sense of the habitual use of the  scientific method and the knowledge derived from it, as something deeply  distinguished from all other realms of human endeavor.

By the 20th century, the modern notion of science as a special kind  of knowledge about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued  through a unique method, was essentially in place. It was used to give  legitimacy to a variety of fields through such titles as "scientific"  medicine, engineering, advertising, or motherhood.[19] Over the 20th century, links between science and technology also grew increasingly strong. As Martin Rees explains, progress in scientific understanding and technology have been synergistic and vital to one another.[21]

Richard Feynman described science in the following way for his students: "The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole judge  of scientific 'truth'. But what is the source of knowledge? Where do  the laws that are to be tested come from? Experiment, itself, helps to  produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But also needed  is imagination to create from these hints the great generalizations —  to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath  them all, and then to experiment to check again whether we have made the  right guess." Feynman also observed, "...there is an expanding frontier  of ignorance...things must be learned only to be unlearned again or,  more likely, to be corrected."[22]

Scientific method

Main article: Scientific method

A scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, and to use these findings to make useful predictions.  This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also  through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under  controlled conditions. Taken in its entirety, a scientific method allows  for highly creative problem solving whilst minimizing any effects of  subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the confirmation bias).[23]

Basic and applied research

Although some scientific research is applied research into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic research.  This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned  or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday  when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".[24] For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our night vision is not troubled by red light would lead militaries to adopt red light in the cockpits of all jet fighters.[25] In a nutshell: Basic research is the search for knowledge. Applied research is the search for solutions.

Experimentation and hypothesizing

DNA determines the genetic structure of all known life

 The Bohr model of the atom, like many ideas in the history of science, was at first prompted by (and later partially disproved by) experimentation.

Based on observations of a phenomenon,scientists may generate a model.[26]  This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a  logical physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence  is gathered, scientists can suggest a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. Hypotheses may be formulated using principles such as parsimony (traditionally known as "Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience - fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena. This new explanation is used to make falsifiable  predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. When a  hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded.  Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish a causational relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). Operationalization also plays an important role in coordinating research in/across different fields.

Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory.  This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for  describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically  describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a  hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically  bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis  explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are  formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as  hypotheses.

While performing experiments, scientists  may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is  important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.[27][28] This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.[29][30]  After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is  normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the  research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar  experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.[31]

Certainty and science

Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science works under a fallibilistic view. Instead, science is proud to make predictions with great probability, bearing in mind that the most likely event is not always what actually happens. During the Yom Kippur War, cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahnemancoincidences in life, explaining that absurdly rare things, by definition, occasionally happen.[32]  was asked to explain why one squad of aircraft had returned safely, yet  a second squad on exactly the same operation had lost all of its  planes. Rather than conduct a study in the hope of a new hypothesis,  Kahneman simply reiterated the importance of expecting some 

 Although science values legitimate doubt, The Flat Earth Society is still widely regarded as an example of taking skepticism too far

Theories very rarely result in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith Stanovich,  it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads  the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it  thought was true to be false.[33] While there are such famous cases as the theory of relativity  that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme  exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of  information from different experiments, by various researchers, across  different domains of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.[34]  Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and  verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community. For  example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered factual.[35]

Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skepticalpossibility  that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically  then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific method will doubt  themselves even once they possess the truth.[36] The fallibilist C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless[37]—but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense.[38]  He held that the successful sciences trust, not to any single chain of  inference (no stronger than its weakest link), but to the cable of  multiple and various arguments intimately connected.[39] and entertaining the 

Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the single cause fallacy. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is the cause of...", but rather "What are the most significant causes of...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, cosmology).[40]  Of course, research often analyzes few factors at once, but this always  to add to the long list of factors that are most important to consider.[40]  For example: knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their  history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a  behaviour, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can  be very predictive.

Mathematics

Main article: Mathematics

 Data from the famous Michelson–Morley experiment

Mathematics  is essential to the sciences. One important function of mathematics in  science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calculus, for example, are all essential to physics. Virtually every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as number theory and topology.

Statistical methods,  which are mathematical techniques for summarizing and analyzing data,  allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of  variation in experimental results. Statistical analysis plays a  fundamental role in many areas of both the natural sciences and social  sciences.

Computational science  applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a  better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics  alone can achieve. According to the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.[41]

Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been  a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as  scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or  mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see  mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test  of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logicalaxiomatic systems, rather than the combination of empirical observation and logical reasoning that has come to be known as scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.[42] derivations which presume 

Scientific community

 The Meissner effect causes a magnetsuperconductor to levitate above a 

Main article: Scientific community

The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists,  its relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into  "sub-communities" each working on a particular field within science.

Fields

Main article: Fields of science

Fields of science are widely recognized categories of specialized expertise, and typically embody their own terminology and nomenclature. Each field will commonly be represented by one or more scientific journal, where peer reviewed research will be published.

Institutions

Louis XIV visiting the Académie des sciences in 1671

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period.[43] The oldest surviving institution is the Accademia dei Lincei in Italy.[44] The respective National Academies of Science are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660[45] and the French Académie des Sciences in 1666.[46]

International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science,  have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific  communities of different nations. More recently, influential government  agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the  National Science Foundation in the U.S.

Other prominent organizations include the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, the academies of science of many nations, CSIRO in Australia, Centre national de la recherche scientifique in France, Max Planck Society and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in Germany, and in Spain, CSIC.

Literature

Main article: Scientific literature

An enormous range of scientific literature is published.[47] Scientific journals  communicate and document the results of research carried out in  universities and various other research institutions, serving as an  archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des Sçavans followed by the Philosophical Transactions,  began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active  periodicals has steadily increased. As of 1981, one estimate for the  number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.[48] Today Pubmed lists almost 40,000, related to the medical sciences only.[49]

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish  the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in  the form of a scientific paper.  Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is  generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news,  and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie and Scientific American  cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a  non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable  discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Science books engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the science fiction genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.

Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as LiteraturePoetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.[50] or, more specifically, 

Philosophy of science

Main article: Philosophy of science

 Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate

The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and  justification of scientific knowledge. It has proven difficult to  provide a definitive account of scientific method  that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus  there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are,  which is known as the problem of demarcation. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the scientific community  at large. For example, it is universally agreed that scientific  hypotheses and theories must be capable of being independently tested  and verified by other scientists in order to become accepted by the  scientific community.

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. Methodological naturalismempirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable phenomena.[51] Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased observational studies. Critical rationalism  instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a  demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary;  it instead proposes falsifiability  as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the  universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the ability  of science to increase the scope of testable knowledge, but at the same  time against its authority, by emphasizing its inherent fallibility.  It proposes that science should be content with the rational  elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their  verification (such as claiming certain or probable proof or disproof;  both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of  methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical  rationalism).[52] Instrumentalism  rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of  theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.[53] maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to 

Biologist Stephen J. Gould  maintained that certain philosophical propositions—i.e., 1) uniformity  of law and 2) uniformity of processes across time and space—must first  be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. Gould  summarized this view as follows:

"The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations. (Since the assumption is itself vindicated by induction, it can in no way “prove” the validity of induction - an endeavor virtually abandoned after Hume demonstrated its futility two centuries ago)."^[54]

Science policy

Main articles: Science policy, History of science policy, and Funding of science

Science policy is an area of public policy concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of the science and research enterprise, including research funding,  often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological  innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons  development, health care and environmental monitoring. Science policy  also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to  the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with the  entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences. Is accordance  with public policy  being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's  goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the  public.

State policy has influenced the funding of public works and science for thousands of years, dating at least from the time of the Mohists, who inspired the study of logic during the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, and the study of defensive fortifications during the Warring States Period in China. In Great Britain, governmental approval of the Royal Society in the seventeenth century recognized a scientific communityNational Academy of Sciences, the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and State funding of universities of their respective nations. Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment, intellectual infrastructure for industrial research, by providing tax incentives to those organizations who fund research. Vannevar Bush, director of the office of scientific research and development for the United States government, the forerunner of the National Science Foundation, wrote in July 1945 that "Science is a proper concern of government" [55]  which exists to this day. The professionalization of science, begun in  the nineteenth century, was partly enabled by the creation of scientific  organizations such as the 

Science and technology research is often funded through a competitive  process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only  the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by  government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total  research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.[56] In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research.  In commercial research and development, all but the most  research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term  commercialisation possibilities rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).

Pseudoscience, fringe science, and junk science

Main articles: Pseudoscience, Fringe science, Junk science, Cargo cult science, and Scientific misconduct

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an  attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to  achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or "alternative science". Another term, junk science,  is often used to describe scientific hypotheses or conclusions which,  while perhaps legitimate in themselves, are believed to be used to  support a position that is seen as not legitimately justified by the  totality of evidence. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science"  in reference to pursuits that have the formal trappings of science but  lack "a principle of scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of  utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.  Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may  fall into these categories.

There also can be an element of political or ideological bias on all  sides of such debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad  science", research that is well-intentioned but is seen as incorrect,  obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific  ideas. The term "scientific misconduct"  refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally  misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a  discovery to the wrong person.

Critiques

Main article: Criticisms of Science

Philosophical critiques

Historian Jacques Barzun  termed science "a faith as fanatical as any in history" and warned  against the use of scientific thought to suppress considerations of  meaning as integral to human existence.[57] Many recent thinkers, such as Carolyn Merchant, Theodor Adorno and E. F. Schumacher considered that the 17th century scientific revolution shifted science from a focus on understanding nature, or wisdom, to a focus on manipulating nature, i.e. power, and that science's emphasis on manipulating nature leads it inevitably to manipulate people, as well.[58]  Science's focus on quantitative measures has led to critiques that it  is unable to recognize important qualitative aspects of the world.[58]

Philosopher of science Paul K Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological anarchism, which holds that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science or the growth of knowledge,  and that the idea that science can or should operate according to  universal and fixed rules is unrealistic, pernicious and detrimental to  science itself.[59] Feyerabend advocates treating science as an ideology alongside others such as religion, magic and mythology, and considers the dominance of science in society authoritarian and unjustified.[59] He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that the demarcation problem of distinguishing science from pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the notion of science running according to fixed, universal rules.[59]

Feyerabend also criticized Science for not having evidence for its  own philosophical precepts. Particularly the notion of Uniformity of Law  and the Uniformity of Process across time and space. "We have to  realize that a unified theory of the physical world simply does not  exist" says Feyerabend, "We have theories that work in restricted  regions, we have purely formal attempts to condense them into a single  formula, we have lots of unfounded claims (such as the claim that all of  chemistry can be reduced to physics), phenomena that do not fit into  the accepted framework are suppressed; in physics, which many scientists  regard as the one really basic science, we have now at least three  different points of view...without a promise of conceptual (and not only  formal) unification".[60]

Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz  scrutinizes science for operating with the presumption that the only  acceptable criticisms of science are those conducted within the  methodological framework that science has set up for itself. That  science insists that only those who have been inducted into its  community, through means of training and credentials, are qualified to  make these criticisms.[61] Aronowitz also alleges that while scientists consider it absurd that Fundamentalist Christianity  uses biblical references to bolster their claim that the bible is true,  scientists pull the same tactic by using the tools of science to settle  disputes concerning its own validity.[62]

Psychologist Carl Jung  believed that though science attempted to understand all of nature, the  experimental method imposed artificial and conditional questions that  evoke equally artificial answers. Jung encouraged, instead of these  'artificial' methods, empirically testing the world in a holistic manner.[63] David Parkin compared the epistemological stance of science to that of divination.[64]  He suggested that, to the degree that divination is an  epistemologically specific means of gaining insight into a given  question, science itself can be considered a form of divination that is  framed from a Western view of the nature (and thus possible  applications) of knowledge.

Several academics have offered critiques concerning ethics in science. In Science and Ethics, for example, the philosopher Bernard Rollin  examines the relevance of ethics to science, and argues in favor of  making education in ethics part and parcel of scientific training.[65]

Media perspectives

The mass media  face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately  depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility  within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight  to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise regarding the matter.[66]beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they are suddenly asked to cover.[67][68] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even 

Politics and Public Perception of Science

See also: Politicization of science

Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass media frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in Britain include the controversy over the MMRinoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of a Government Minister, Edwina Currie for revealing the high probability that battery eggs were contaminated with Salmonella.[69] 

Resistance to certain scientific ideas derives in large part from  assumptions and biases that can be demonstrated experimentally in young  children and that may persist into adulthood. In particular, both adults  and children resist acquiring scientific information that clashes with common-sense  intuitions about the physical and psychological domains. Additionally,  when learning information from other people, both adults and children  are sensitive to the trustworthiness of the source of that information.  Resistance to science, then, is particularly exaggerated in societies  where nonscientific ideologies have the advantages of being both  grounded in common sense and transmitted by trustworthy sources. This  resistance to science has important social implications, because  scientifically ignorant publics are unprepared to evaluate policies  about such things as global warming, vaccination, genetically modified organisms, stem cell research, and cloning.[70]

Notes

 ^ "Online dictionary". Merriam-Webster. http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/science. Retrieved 2009-05-22.  "knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the  operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through  scientific method . . . such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena" 
^ a b c d Popper, Karl (2002) [1959]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd English ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics. p. 3. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149. 
^ Wilson, Edward (1999). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76867-X. 
^ Ludwik Fleck (1935), Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact reminds us that before a specific fact 'existed', it had to be created as part of a social agreement within a community.
^ Aristotle, ca. 4th century BCE "Nicomachean Ethics Book VI, and Metaphysics Book I:". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b. epistemē); for the artists can teach, but the others cannot." — Aristot. Met. 1.981b  "In general the sign of knowledge or ignorance is the ability to teach,  and for this reason we hold that art rather than experience is  scientific knowledge (
^ Consider, for example, Isaac NewtonPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) 
^ Max Born (1949, 1965) Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance  points out that all knowledge, including natural or social science, is  also subjective. Page 162: "Thus it dawned upon me that fundamentally  everything is subjective, everything without exception. That was a  shock." See: intersubjective verifiability.
^ See: Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008). "Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms". Seed magazine. http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2007/03/scientific_method_relationship.php. Retrieved 2007-09-12. 
^ Marcus Tomalin (2006) Linguistics and the Formal Sciences
^ Benedikt Löwe (2002) "The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity" [1]
^ a b Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 14, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X
^ Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity. M.E. Sharpe. p. 18. ISBN 0765609320. 
^ "The Scientific Revolution". Washington State University
^ It is the nominal form of the verb scire, "to know". The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root that yields scire is *skei-, meaning to "cut, separate, or discern".
^ Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online. See also details of the PIE root at American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition, 2000..
^  "... [A] man knows a thing scientifically when he possesses a  conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on  which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty—for unless  he is more certain of his first principles than of the conclusion drawn  from them he will only possess the knowledge in question accidentally." —  Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 6 (H. Rackham, ed.) Aristot. Nic. Eth. 1139b
^ MacMorris, Neville (1989). The Natures of Science. New York: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 0838633218. 
^ Locke, J. (1838). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Printed by Thomas Davison. ISBN 0140434828. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
^ a b c d Thurs, Daniel Patrick (2007). Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 22:55. ISBN 978-0813540733. OCLC 170031241. 
^ Ross, S. (1962). "Scientist: The story of a word" (PDF). Annals of Science 18 (2): 65–85. doi:10.1080/00033796200202722. http://www.informaworld.com/index/739364907.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08. 
^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00sp194/The_Reith_Lectures_Martin_Rees_Scientific_Horizons_2010_What_Well_Never_Know/
^ Feynman, Leighton, Sands. "The Feynman Lectures On Physics", pp. 1-1, California Institute of Technology, 1964.
^ Backer, Patricia Ryaby (October 29, 2004). "What is the scientific method?". San Jose State University. http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-28. 
^ http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91
^ Stanovich, 2007, pg 106-110
^  The models need not be completely abstract: when modeling, the problems  can be simplified — strings joining masses may be modeled as  unstretchable, as in a metallic wire, or perhaps be modeled with  noticeable mass, as in a dog chain. Once a mathematical solution is  known, it can be re-used elsewhere in science.
^ van Gelder, Tim (1999). ""Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy" (PDF). University of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-28. 
^ Pease, Craig (September 6, 2006). "Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science". Science for Business, Law and Journalism. Vermont Law School. http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-28. 
^ Shatz, David (2004). Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 074251434X. OCLC 54989960. 
^ Krimsky, Sheldon (2003). Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 074251479X. OCLC 185926306. 
^ Bulger, Ruth Ellen; Heitman, Elizabeth; Reiser, Stanley Joel (2002). The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521008867. OCLC 47791316. 
^ Stanovich 2007 pg 173
^ Stanovich 2007 pg 119-138
^ Stanovich 2007 pg 123
^ Dawkins, Richard; Coyne, Jerry (2005-09-02). "One side can be wrong". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/sep/01/schools.research. 
^ http://philosophybites.com/2007/12/barry-stroud-on.html
^ Peirce (1878), "The Fixation of Belief", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 1–15, see §IV on p. 6-7. Reprinted Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 358–87 (see 374-6), Writings v. 3, pp. 242–57 (see 247-8), Essential Peirce v. 1, pp. 109–23 (see 114-15), and elsewhere.
^ Peirce (1905), "Issues of Pragmaticism", The Monist, v. XV, n. 4, pp. 481-99, see "Character V" on p. 491. Reprinted in Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 438-63 (see 451), Essential Peirce v. 2, pp. 346-59 (see 353), and elsewhere.
^ Peirce (1868), "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", Journal of Speculative Philosophy v. 2, n. 3, pp. 140-57, see p. 141. Reprinted in Collected Papers, v. 5, paragraphs 264-317, Writings v. 2, pp. 211-42, Essential Peirce v. 1, pp. 28-55, and elsewhere.
^ a b Stanovich 2007 pg 141-147
^ Graduate Education for Computational Science and Engineering, SIAM Working Group on CSE Education. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
^ Bunge, Mario Augusto (1998). Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory. Transaction Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-765-80413-1. 
^ Parrott, Jim (August 9, 2007). "Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599". Scholarly Societies Project. http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
^ "Benvenuto nel sito dell'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei" (in Italian). Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 2006. http://positivamente.lincei.it/. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
^ "Brief history of the Society". The Royal Society. http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
^ Meynell, G.G.. "The  French Academy of Sciences, 1666-91: A reassessment of the French  Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666-83) and Louvois  (1683-91)". Topics in Scientific & Medical History. http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
^ Ziman, Bhadriraju (1980). "The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process". Science 208 (4442): 369–371. doi:10.1126/science.7367863. PMID 7367863. 
^ Subramanyam, Krishna; Subramanyam, Bhadriraju (1981). Scientific and Technical Information Resources. CRC Press. ISBN 0824782976. OCLC 232950234. 
^ NIH.gov
^ Petrucci, Mario. "Creative Writing <-> Science". http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-27. 
^ Brugger, E. Christian (2004). "Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition". The Review of Metaphysics 58 (2). 
^ Popper, Karl (2002). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Routledge. ISBN 0061313769. 
^ Newton-Smith, W. H. (1994). The Rationality of Science. London: Routledge. p. 30. ISBN 0710009135. 
^ Gould, S. J. 1965. Is uniformitarianism necessary? American Journal of Science 263:223–228.
^ Vannevar Bush (July 1945), "Science, the Endless Frontier"
^ Main Science and Technology Indicators - 2008PDF (50.8 KB)
^ Jacques Barzun, Science: The Glorious Entertainment, Harper and Row: 1964. p. 15. (quote) and Chapters II and XII.
^ a b Fritjof Capra, Uncommon Wisdom, ISBN 0-671-47322-0, p. 213
^ a b c Feyerabend, Paul (1993). Against Method. London: Verso. ISBN 9780860916468. 
^ Feyerabend, Paul (1987). Farewell To Reason. Verso. p. 100. ISBN 0860911845. 
^ Aronowitz, Stanley (1988). Science As Power: Discourse and Ideology in Modern Society. University of Minnesota Press. p. viii (preface). ISBN 0816616590. 
^ Stanley Aronowitz in conversation with Derrick Jensen in Jensen, Derrick (2004). Welcome to the Machine: Science, Surveillance, and the Culture of Control. Chelsea Green Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 1931498520. 
^ Jung, Carl (1973). Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. Princeton University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0691017948. 
^ Parkin 1991 "Simultaneity and Sequencing in the Oracular Speech of Kenyan Diviners", p. 185.
^ Rollin, Bernard E. (2006). Science and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521857546. OCLC 238793190. 
^ Dickson, David (October 11, 2004). "Science journalism must keep a critical edge". Science and Development Network. http://www.scidev.net/Editorials/index.cfm?fuseaction=readEditorials&itemid=131&language=1. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 
^ Mooney, Chris (2007). "Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality". Columbia Journalism Review. http://cjrarchives.org/issues/2004/6/mooney-science.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 
^ McIlwaine, S.; Nguyen, D. A. (2005). "Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science?". Australian Studies in Journalism 14: 41–60. http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 
^ "1988: Egg industry fury over salmonella claim", "On This Day," BBC News, December 3, 1988.
^ Childhood Origins of Adult Resistance to Science by Paul Bloom and Deena Skolnick Weisberg

References

Feyerabend, Paul (2005). Science, history of the philosophy, as cited in Honderich, Ted (2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199264791. OCLC 173262485. of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
Feynman, R.P. (1999). The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman. Perseus Books Group. ISBN 0465023959. OCLC 181597764.
Papineau, David. (2005). Science, problems of the philosophy of., as cited in Honderich, Ted (2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199264791. OCLC 173262485.
Parkin, D (1991). Philip M. Peek. ed. African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press .
Stanovich, Keith E (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education

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